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Literature Synthesis -- Batch 05 (Files 961-1000)

Generated: 2026-04-17 | Scope: 40 papers (Jawalageri 2022 -- Malekjafarian 2020)

Individual Paper Summaries

# Author(s) Year Title Core Finding Method Tags
1 Jawalageri et al. 2022 Effect of scour erosion on mode shapes of a 5 MW monopile-supported OWT Second mode shape more sensitive to scour than first; MAC values track scour progression consistently Numerical (OpenFAST + SESAM), FDD, Winkler p-y springs scour, monopile, mode shapes, MAC, FDD
2 Jeong et al. 2021 Centrifuge modeling for cyclic behavior of OWT with tripod foundation Evaluated cyclic behaviour of tripod foundations under lateral loading via centrifuge Centrifuge testing tripod, cyclic loading, centrifuge
3 Jia J. 2018 Soil Dynamics and Foundation Modeling (Book, copy 1) Comprehensive textbook covering soil dynamics, SSI, foundation modeling for offshore/earthquake engineering Textbook/reference soil dynamics, SSI, foundation modeling, reference
4 Jia J. 2018 Soil Dynamics and Foundation Modeling (Book, copy 2) Duplicate of entry 3 Textbook/reference soil dynamics, SSI, foundation modeling
5 Jia X. et al. 2024 Combined seismic and scoured numerical model for bucket-supported OWTs Combined seismic and scour analysis for suction bucket OWT foundations Numerical (FEM) seismic, scour, suction bucket, OWT
6 Jin et al. 2019 Hypoplastic macroelement model for caisson in sand under monotonic/cyclic loadings Proposed hypoplasticity-based macroelement for caisson foundations; validated against 1g model tests Macroelement (hypoplasticity), 1g lab tests macroelement, caisson, hypoplasticity, cyclic
7 Jin et al. 2025 Evolution of bearing capacity and macroelement modelling for suction caissons considering local scour Scour depth dominates bearing capacity loss over scour width/angle; failure envelope shape unchanged; novel macroelement with one scour parameter FEM + hypoplastic macroelement scour, suction caisson, failure envelope, macroelement
8 Ju 2013 Determination of scoured bridge natural frequencies with SSI Frequency decreases with scour depth; change most obvious when pile cap is exposed; fluid effect on frequency is negligible vs. SSI FEM (soil-fluid-structure), field experiment bridge scour, natural frequency, SSI, FEM
9 Sastre Jurado et al. 2022 Impact of calibrated soil-monopile-interaction model on resonance frequencies PISA-based soil-pile interaction improves natural frequency prediction vs. standard p-y curves Monitoring data + PISA framework, Belgian OWT case study monopile, natural frequency, PISA, monitoring
10 Kallehave et al. 2015 Optimization of monopiles for offshore wind turbines Monopile design costs can be reduced through optimized engineering methods tailored to offshore wind Review/optimization framework monopile, optimization, cost reduction
11 Karapiperis & Gerolymos 2014 Combined loading of caisson foundations in cohesive soil: FE vs. Winkler 4-spring Winkler model matches 3D FE for caisson response; ultimate soil reaction depends on load ratio M/Q, not solely on soil strength 3D FEM + Winkler (genetic algorithm calibration) caisson, combined loading, Winkler, FEM, failure envelope
12 Kariyawasam et al. 2019a Field assessment of ambient vibration-based bridge scour detection Measured frequencies showed high variability; PSD amplitude and modal amplitude may be better scour indicators than frequency alone Field monitoring (FDD, PSD), Baildon Bridge bridge scour, vibration monitoring, field, FDD
13 Kariyawasam et al. 2019b Field deployment of vibration-based scour monitoring at Baildon Bridge, UK Two scour-sensitive modes identified; frequency variability compared to expected scour-induced shift is a challenge for small-span bridges Field accelerometers + FE model updating bridge scour, field deployment, accelerometer, SHM
14 Kariyawasam 2020 (Thesis) A vibration-based bridge scour monitoring technique Comprehensive PhD thesis on vibration-based scour monitoring combining field, centrifuge, and numerical approaches Multi-method (field, centrifuge, FEM) bridge scour, vibration monitoring, thesis
15 Kariyawasam et al. 2020 Assessment of bridge natural frequency as indicator of scour using centrifuge modelling Up to 40% frequency variation for 30% embedment loss; global scour sensitivity slightly higher than local scour; deep foundations more sensitive than shallow Centrifuge testing (1/60 scale) bridge scour, natural frequency, centrifuge, foundation type
16 Khan et al. 2021 Laboratory investigation of bridge scour monitoring using decentralized modal analysis Decentralized modal analysis with re-deployable sensors can locate scour; RMS mode shape difference increases linearly with stiffness loss Numerical + scaled lab model, VBI bridge scour, modal analysis, decentralized, SHM
17 Kheffache et al. 2024 Advanced simulations of monitored OWT monopiles in Belgian North Sea API p-y overestimates bending moments and underestimates stiffness; PISA gives satisfactory results; scour protection effect highlighted 3D FEM + 1D beam-column, monitoring back-analysis monopile, monitoring, PISA, API, back-analysis
18 Kim et al. 2025 Scour impacts on natural frequency of OWT with tripod suction bucket foundations Max 5.3% frequency reduction at scour depth = 0.6D; multi-footing redistributes stiffness loss; predictive sensitivity model validated Centrifuge testing scour, tripod suction bucket, natural frequency, centrifuge
19 Lai et al. 2023 Effects of soil small strain nonlinearity on dynamic impedance of suction caisson Dynamic impedance significantly affected by load magnitude and soil nonlinearity; horizontal stiffness related to shallow strata, rocking to deep strata FEM with small-strain nonlinearity suction caisson, dynamic impedance, small strain, nonlinearity
20 LeBlanc et al. 2010 Response of stiff piles in sand to long-term cyclic lateral loading Pile stiffness increases with number of cycles (contradicts degradation assumption); accumulated rotation depends on load characteristics and density 1g laboratory tests (8000-60000 cycles) monopile, cyclic loading, stiffness, accumulated rotation
21 Lehane et al. 2023 Interpretation of centrifuge CPT data in NC silica and carbonate sands Empirical formulations bridge centrifuge-scale and field-scale qc discrepancies caused by shallow penetration effects Centrifuge CPT testing CPT, centrifuge, scaling, sand
22 Lehane et al. 2022 CPT-based axial pile capacity design method for driven piles in clay New unified CPT-based method for shaft friction in clay; good predictions validated against independent database Database analysis + CPT correlation CPT, pile capacity, clay, design method
23 Li et al. 2020 Centrifuge modeling of local and global scour impact on monopile lateral response Both local and global scour reduce lateral capacity; global scour more detrimental than local for same depth; stress history effects identified Centrifuge testing scour, monopile, centrifuge, lateral response
24 Li et al. 2021 Impact of scour on lateral resistance of wind turbine monopiles: experimental study Moment capacity decreases linearly with scour depth for all scour geometries; new method to quantify scour-hole shape effect on pile response Centrifuge model tests, p-y curves scour, monopile, centrifuge, moment capacity, p-y
25 Liingaard 2006 (Thesis, copy 1) Dynamic Behaviour of Suction Caissons (PhD Thesis) Comprehensive study of frequency-dependent dynamic stiffness of suction caissons for OWT foundations Analytical/numerical, Aalborg/UWA suction caisson, dynamic stiffness, thesis
26 Liingaard 2006 (copy 2) Dynamic Behaviour of Suction Caissons Duplicate of entry 25 -- suction caisson, dynamic stiffness
27 Liingaard 2006 (copy 3) Dynamic Behaviour of Suction Caissons Duplicate of entry 25 -- suction caisson, dynamic stiffness
28 Lin et al. 2021 AIoT sensing system for real-time bridge scour monitoring during floods AIoT system combining multiple sensors for real-time scour early warning during flood events IoT sensors + AI, field deployment (Taiwan) bridge scour, AIoT, real-time monitoring, flood
29 Liu J. et al. 2022 Test method for scour effects on lateral response of rigid piles under real scour conditions Proposed test method combining hydraulic scour generation with lateral loading; addresses gap of testing without realistic hydraulic environment Physical model test design (wave + current + load) scour, rigid pile, test method, hydraulic
30 Liu Y. et al. 2022 Capacity of spudcan on dense sand overlying clay under combined loading Failure envelope expands with V for thick sand but shrinks for thin sand layer; new design formulas for V-H-M envelope FEM parametric study spudcan, combined loading, failure envelope, layered soil
31 Lombardi et al. 2013 Dynamic SSI of monopile-supported wind turbines in cohesive soil Natural frequency change strongly depends on shear strain level in soil; practical guidance for monopile diameter selection 1g lab tests (32000-172000 cycles), kaolin clay monopile, cyclic loading, natural frequency, clay, SSI
32 Lombardi et al. 2014 Dynamic response of geotechnical rigid model container with absorbing boundaries Foam absorbing boundaries dissipate 41-92% of input energy depending on foam type; critical for accurate 1g shaking table tests 1g shaking table tests model container, absorbing boundary, shaking table
33 Lopez et al. 2025 Data-driven macroelement model for suction buckets in sand ANN-based macroelement predicts suction bucket response in 3D V-H-M space; excellent generalisation to unseen data 3D FEM database + neural network suction bucket, macroelement, machine learning, ANN
34 Song et al. 2023 One year monitoring of OWT: variability of modal parameters FA mode frequencies and damping show large variability vs. stable SS modes; automated identification over 1 year verifies long-term monitoring feasibility Field monitoring (Block Island), automated OMA OWT, monitoring, modal parameters, variability
35 Lee M.G. et al. 2018 Development of seismic CPT for evaluating in-flight soil properties in centrifuge SCPT system measures both qc and Vs in-flight; refracted ray path method needed for accurate Vs interpretation Centrifuge SCPT + bender element validation centrifuge, SCPT, Vs, in-flight characterization
36 Ryu et al. 2020 Closed-form solution for lateral response of tripod suction pile Simple analysis method predicts first natural frequency within 1% error; validated by field tests Analytical (influence factors) + field validation tripod suction pile, natural frequency, closed-form
37 Ryu et al. 2019 Verification of tripod suction pile applicability through dynamic characteristic analysis Dynamic characteristics verified at each installation stage for tripod suction pile OWT Field tests + numerical analysis (image-based PDF, limited text) tripod suction pile, installation, dynamic characteristics
38 Ryu et al. 2022 All-In-One-Installation vessel for offshore wind turbines Innovative single-day installation vessel concept for OWT deployment Conceptual/engineering design installation, OWT, vessel, innovation
39 Ma et al. 2018 Effect of scour on structural response of OWT on tripod foundation Scour has minor effect on tripod OWT natural frequency but significantly increases pile stress (ULS) and deflection (SLS); fatigue life reduced 3D FEM, full-scale validation scour, tripod, OWT, ULS, SLS, FLS
40 Malekjafarian et al. 2020 Mode shape-based scour monitoring for multispan bridges with shallow foundations Mean-normalized mode shape (MNMS) can locate scour and quantify stiffness loss; tested on scaled 4-span bridge Scaled lab model + FDD bridge scour, mode shape, MNMS, damage detection

CONSENSUS

  1. Scour reduces foundation stiffness and natural frequency. Every study examining scour (Jawalageri, Ju, Kim, Li, Ma, Kariyawasam, Khan, Malekjafarian) confirms that increasing scour depth decreases system natural frequency and lateral capacity. This is established across monopiles, tripod foundations, suction buckets, and bridge piers.

  2. Global scour is more detrimental than local scour for the same nominal depth, because global scour removes overburden stress across a wider area (Li 2020, Kariyawasam 2020, Li 2021).

  3. API p-y curves underestimate foundation stiffness and overestimate structural loads for large-diameter monopiles. The PISA framework provides substantially better agreement with monitored data (Jurado 2022, Kheffache 2024).

  4. Vibration-based monitoring is viable for scour detection, though frequency variability under ambient/operational conditions remains a practical challenge. Higher modes and mode-shape-based indicators (MAC, MNMS) offer improved sensitivity over first-mode frequency alone (Jawalageri 2022, Kariyawasam 2019a/b, Khan 2021, Malekjafarian 2020).

  5. Macroelement models offer efficient alternatives to full FEM for foundation response under combined loading, with recent extensions to scour effects and data-driven (ANN) formulations (Jin 2019, Jin 2025, Lopez 2025, Karapiperis 2014).

DEBATES

  1. Scour modelling fidelity: global removal vs. realistic geometry. Most numerical studies approximate scour by removing soil layers entirely (global scour assumption), but Li (2021) and Liu J. (2022) argue that scour-hole geometry (slope angle, width) significantly affects lateral response and that testing under realistic hydraulic scour conditions is necessary.

  2. Frequency vs. mode shape as scour indicator. Kariyawasam (2019a) found that frequency variability in the field can exceed scour-induced frequency shifts, questioning the reliability of frequency-only approaches. Khan (2021) and Malekjafarian (2020) advocate mode-shape-based indicators as more robust, while Jawalageri (2022) shows second-mode sensitivity is higher but requires more sensors.

  3. Cyclic loading: stiffness increase or degradation? LeBlanc (2010) demonstrated that pile stiffness in sand increases with number of cycles, directly contradicting the API approach that degrades static p-y curves for cyclic conditions. Lombardi (2013) found frequency changes depend on shear strain level in clay. The direction of stiffness evolution under cyclic loading remains soil-type and strain-level dependent.

  4. Tripod vs. monopile scour sensitivity. Ma (2018) found scour has "minor effect" on tripod OWT natural frequency, while Kim (2025) measured up to 5.3% reduction. Both are substantially less than monopile sensitivity, but the significance for fatigue design is debated.

GAPS

  1. Scour effects on multi-footing (tripod/tetrapod suction bucket) foundations remain under-investigated compared to monopiles. Only Kim (2025) and Ma (2018) address tripod scour experimentally, and no centrifuge study combines scour with cyclic loading for these configurations.

  2. Long-term monitoring data linking scour progression to dynamic response in real offshore wind turbines is absent. Song (2023) provides 1-year OWT monitoring but does not address scour; Kariyawasam's field work is on bridges, not OWTs.

  3. Data-driven macroelement models (Lopez 2025) are in their infancy -- validated only for monotonic sand conditions. Extension to cyclic loading, clay, and scour effects has not been attempted.

  4. Coupled hydraulic-geotechnical-structural scour testing under realistic conditions is virtually nonexistent. Liu J. (2022) proposes a method but acknowledges its limitations. No centrifuge study reproduces in-flight scour through actual water flow.

  5. Scour effects on dynamic impedance of suction caissons have not been studied. Lai (2023) addresses small-strain nonlinearity effects on impedance but does not consider scour.

METHODS

Method Papers Strengths Limitations
Geotechnical centrifuge Kim 2025, Kariyawasam 2020, Li 2020/2021, Jeong 2021, Lehane 2023, Lee 2018 Correct stress field, repeatable, instrumented Scale effects on scour geometry, no real hydraulic scour
3D FEM Kheffache 2024, Karapiperis 2014, Jin 2025, Jia 2024, Liu Y. 2022 Full stress-strain field, parametric studies Computationally expensive, constitutive model sensitivity
Winkler / p-y models Jawalageri 2022, Karapiperis 2014, Kheffache 2024 Fast, design-compatible API p-y inaccurate for large-diameter piles
PISA framework Jurado 2022, Kheffache 2024 Better match to monitoring data Site-specific calibration needed
Macroelement Jin 2019/2025, Lopez 2025, Karapiperis 2014 Efficient for integrated SSI analysis Limited validation range, recent extensions untested
Field/OWT monitoring Song 2023, Jurado 2022, Kheffache 2024 Real operational data Short duration, limited scour correlation
Bridge field monitoring Kariyawasam 2019a/b, Lin 2021 Real scour conditions High variability, small frequency shifts
1g lab tests LeBlanc 2010, Lombardi 2013/2014 Long cyclic series feasible No stress-level scaling
Analytical/closed-form Ryu 2020, Ma 2018 Rapid preliminary design Simplified assumptions

BENCHMARKS

Benchmark Value Source
Monopile frequency drop per 1D scour ~5-15% (varies with soil, L/D) Li 2020, Jawalageri 2022
Tripod suction bucket frequency drop at 0.6D scour 5.3% max Kim et al. 2025
Bridge frequency change for 30% embedment loss Up to 40% Kariyawasam 2020
Cyclic stiffness increase in sand (60k cycles) Measurable increase (contradicts degradation) LeBlanc 2010
Foam boundary energy absorption 41-92% of input Lombardi 2014
PISA vs API frequency prediction error PISA significantly closer to monitored values Jurado 2022, Kheffache 2024
Ryu closed-form natural frequency error Less than 1% vs. field measurement Ryu 2020
Moment capacity loss per 1D scour (monopile) Near-linear decrease, geometry dependent Li 2021
Centrifuge CPT qc scaling Significant discrepancy at shallow penetration; empirical correction needed Lehane 2023

Note: 3 entries are duplicates (Jia 2018 x2, Liingaard 2006 x3), reducing unique papers to 35.